1 Introduction and Review of Electronic Technology.

1.1 Introduction: Functions of Electronic Technology.

1.1.1 Review of Electronic Devices.

1.1.2 Sources of Current and Voltage: DC.

1.1.2.1 Batteries: Lithium Ion, Ni–Cd, NiMH, and ‘‘Supercapacitors’’.

1.1.2.2 Thermionic Emitters.

1.1.2.3 Field Emitters.

1.1.2.4 Ferroelectric and Pyroelectric Devices.

1.1.3 Generators of Alternating Current and Voltage: AC.

1.1.3.1 Faraday Effect Devices.

1.1.3.2 Crystal Oscillators.

1.1.3.3 Gunn Diode Oscillators.

1.1.3.4 Esaki Diodes.

1.1.3.5 Injection Lasers.

1.1.3.6 Organic Light Emitting Diodes.

1.1.3.7 Blackbody Emission of Radiation.

1.1.4 Detectors.

1.1.4.1 Photomultiplier and Geiger Counter.

1.1.4.2 Photodetector, Solar Cell, and pn Junction.

1.1.4.3 Imaging Detector, CCD Camera, and Channel Plate.

1.1.4.4 SQUID Detector of Magnetic Field and Other Quantities.

1.1.5 Two-Terminal Devices.

1.1.5.1 Semiconductor pn Junction (Nonohmic).

1.1.5.2 Metal–Semiconductor Junction and Alternative Solar Cell.

1.1.5.3 Tunnel Junction (An Ohmic Device).

1.1.5.4 Josephson Junction.

1.1.5.5 Resonant Tunnel Diode (RTD, RITD).

1.1.5.6 Spin-Valve and Tunnel-Valve GMR Magnetic Field Detectors.

1.1.6 Three-Terminal Devices.

1.1.6.1 Field Effect Transistor.

1.1.6.2 Bipolar Junction Transistors: npn and pnp.

1.1.6.3 Resonant Tunneling Hot-Electron Transistor (RHET).

1.1.7 Four-Terminal Devices.

1.1.7.1 Thyristors: npnp and pnpn.

1.1.7.2 Dynamic Random Access Memory.

1.1.7.3 Triple-Barrier RTD (TBRTD).

1.1.8 Data Storage Devices.

1.1.8.1 Optical Memory Devices.

1.1.8.2 Electrical Computer Memory Devices.

References.

2 From Electronics to Nanoelectronics: Particles, Waves, and Schrödinger's Equation.

2.1 Transition from Diffusive Motion of Electron Fluid to Quantum Behavior of Single Electrons.

2.1.1 Vacuum Triode to Field Effect Transistor to Single Electron Transistor.

2.1.2 Crystal Detector Radio to Photomultiplier and Gamma Ray Detector.

2.2 Particle (Quantum) Nature of Matter: Photons, Electrons, Atoms, and Molecules.

2.2.1 Photons.

2.2.2 Electrons.

2.2.3 Atoms, Bohr's Model.

2.2.3.1 Quantization of Angular Momentum and Orbit Energy.

2.2.3.2 Light Absorption and Emission Lines.

2.2.3.3 Magnetic Moments of Orbiting Electrons.

2.2.3.4 Stern–Gerlach Experiment and Electron Spin.

2.3 Particle–Wave Nature of Light and Matter, De Broglie Formulas λ = h/p, E = hv.

2.3.1 Wavefunction ψ, Probability Density ψ*ψ, Traveling and Standing Waves.

2.4 Maxwell's Equations.

2.5 The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.

2.6 Schrödinger Equation, Quantum States and Energies, Barrier Tunneling.

2.6.1 Schrödinger Equations in One Dimension.

2.6.2 The Trapped Particle in One Dimension.

2.6.3 Reflection and Tunneling at a Potential Step.

2.6.4 Penetration of a Barrier.

2.6.5 Trapped Particles in Two and Three Dimensions: Quantum Dot.

2.7 The Simple Harmonic Oscillator.

2.8 Fermions, Bosons, and Occupation Rules.

2.9 A Bose Particle System: Thermal Radiation in Equilibrium.

References.

3 Quantum Description of Atoms and Molecules.

3.1 Schrödinger Equation in Spherical Polar Coordinates.

3.1.1 The Hydrogen Atom, One-Electron Atoms.

3.1.2 Positronium and Excitons.

3.1.3 Magnetization M, Magnetic Resonance, and Susceptibility X.

3.1.4 Electric Dipole Emission Selection Rules for Atoms.

3.1.5 Spontaneous and Stimulated Emission of Light.

3.2 Indistinguishable Particles and Their Exchange Symmetry.

3.2.1 Symmetric and Antisymmetric Wavefunctions.

3.2.2 Orbital and Spin Components of Wavefunction.

3.2.3 Pauli Principle and Periodic Table of Elements.

3.2.3.1 Filled Atomic Shells.

3.2.3.2 Qualitative Aspects of Smallest Atoms.

3.2.3.3 Alkali Atoms, Filled Core Plus One Electron.

3.2.4 Carbon Atom ¹² 6C 1s²2s²2p² ~ 0.07 nm.

3.2.5 Cu, Ni, Xe, Hf.

3.3 Molecules.

3.3.1 Ionic Molecules.

3.3.2 Covalent Bonding in Simple Molecules.

3.3.2.1 Hydrogen Molecule Ion H2þ.

3.3.2.2 Hydrogen Molecule.

3.3.2.3 Methane CH4, Ethane C2H6, and Octane C8H18.

3.3.2.4 Ethylene C2H4, Acetylene C2H2, and Benzene C6H6.

3.3.2.5 Benzene Delocalized Orbitals, Diamagnetism.

3.3.2.6 Diamagnetic Susceptibility of Benzene.

3.3.2.7 Modeling Delocalized Electrons in a Ring.

3.3.2.8 Other Ring Compounds, Electronic Polarizability.

3.3.3 C₆₀ Buckyball Molecule.

References.

4 Metals, Semiconductors, and Junction Devices.

4.1 Metals.

4.1.1 Electronic Conduction.

4.1.1.1 Resistivity, Mean Free Path.

4.1.1.2 Hall Effect, Magnetoresistance.

4.1.2 Metals as Boxes of Free Electrons.

4.1.2.1 Fermi Level, DOS, Dimensionality.

4.2 Energy Bands in Periodic Structures.

4.2.1 Model for Electron Bands and Gaps, Electrons and Holes.

4.2.2 Si, GaAs, and InSb.

4.2.3 Semiconductors and Insulators: Electron Bands and Conduction.

4.2.4 Hydrogenic Donors and Excitons in Semiconductors, Direct and Indirect Bandgaps.

4.2.5 Carrier Concentrations in Semiconductors, Metallic Doping.

4.3 pn Junctions, Diode I–V Characteristic, Photodetector, and Injection Laser.

4.3.1 Radiative Recombination of Electron–Hole Pairs, Emission of Light.

4.3.2 pn Junction Injection Laser.

4.3.2.1 Increasing Radiative Efficiency ŋ of the Injection Laser.

4.3.2.2 VCSEL: Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Laser.

4.4 Semiconductor Surface: Schottky Barrier.

4.5 Ferromagnets.

4.5.1 The Exchange Interaction.

4.5.2 Magnetization and Critical Temperature.

4.5.3 Smallest Magnetic Domain: Superparamagnet.

4.5.4 Separate Bands for Spin-Up and Spin-Down.

4.5.5 Hard and Soft Ferromagnets.

4.5.6 Spin-Dependent Scattering, Resistivities of Spin-Up versus Spin-Down.

4.6 Piezoelectrics, Pyroelectrics, and Superconductors.

4.6.1 Cooperative Distortions and Internal Fields.

4.6.2 Piezoelectrics.

4.6.3 Ferroelectrics and Pyroelectrics.

4.6.4 Superconductors: Large-Scale Coherent Quantum Systems.

4.6.4.1 Superconductivity: a Macroscopic Quantum State.

4.6.4.2 The Superconducting Magnetic Flux Quantum.

4.6.4.3 Josephson Junctions and the Superconducting Quantum Interference Detector (SQUID).

References.

5 Some Newer Building Blocks for Nanoelectronic Devices.

5.1 The Benzene Ring, a Conceptual Basis.

5.2 The Graphene sheet, a Second Conceptual Basis.

5.2.1 Electronic Conduction in Graphene.

5.2.2 Electronic Conduction in Epitaxial Bilayer Graphene.

5.2.3 Device Potential for Graphene.

5.3 Carbon Nanotubes and Related Materials.

5.3.1 Rules and Nomenclature for Nanotubes.

5.3.2 Physical Properties, Current Capacity.

5.3.3 Electric Field Effects Based on Carbon Nanotubes.

5.3.4 Ferromagnetic Nanotubes Controlled by Electron or Hole Doping.

5.4 Gold, Si, and CdS Nanowires and a Related Device.

5.4.1 Rules for One-Dimensional Conductors.

5.4.2 Gold Atom Nanowire Conductors.

5.4.3 Proposed Benzene–Vanadium Ferromagnetic Nanowire.

5.4.4 Single-Nanowire Electrically Pumped CdS Laser.

5.5 ‘‘Endohedral’’ C₆₀ Buckyballs ~ 0.5 nm and Related Fullerene Molecules.

5.6 Quantum Dots.

5.7 Quantum Wells and the Two-Dimensional Electron Gas Metal (2DEG).

5.7.1 Quantum Well Infrared Photodetector.

5.7.2 Two-Dimensional Metallic Electron Gas (2DEG).

5.8 Photonic Crystals.

5.9 Organic Molecules and Conductive Polymers.

5.9.1 Metallic Polymers.

5.9.2 Semiconducting Polymers in Organic Light-Emitting Diodes.

References.

6 Fabrication and Characterization Methods.

6.1 Introduction.

6.2 Surface Structuring.

6.2.1 Nanopore Arrays in Polycarbonate.

6.2.2 Dendritic Growths: Anapore Al₂O₃ and TiO₂ Nanotube Arrays.

6.2.3 Completely Absorbing Nanostructured Surfaces.

6.3 Specialized Vapor Deposition Processes.

6.3.1 Chemical Vapor Deposition Methods.

6.3.1.1 Nanowire Growth by Laser-Assisted Chemical Vapor Deposition.

6.3.1.2 Carbon Nanotube Growth.

6.3.2 Vapor Growth of Conducting Organic Single Crystals.

6.4 Silicon Technology: The INTEL–IBM Approach to Nanotechnology.

6.4.1 Patterning, Masks, and Photolithography.

6.4.2 Etching Silicon.

6.4.3 Depositing Highly Conducting Electrode Regions.

6.4.4 Methods of Deposition of Metal and Insulating Films.

6.5 Advanced Patterning and Photolithography.

6.5.1 Ultraviolet and X-Ray Lithography.

6.5.2 Electron Beam Lithography.

6.5.3 Sacrificial Layers, Suspended Bridges, Single-Electron Transistors.

6.6 Use of DNA Strands in Guiding Self-Assembly of Nanometer-Size Structures.

6.7 Scanning Probe Sensing and Fabrication Methods.

6.7.1 Moving Au Atoms, Making Surface Molecules.

6.7.2 Assembling Organic Molecules with an STM.

6.7.3 Atomic Force Microscope Arrays.

References.

7 The Field Effect Transistor: Size Limits.

7.1 Metal–Oxide–Silicon Field-Effect Transistor.

7.1.1 Operating Principles of MOSFET.

7.1.2 Constant Electric Field Scaling.

7.1.3 Drain Currents at Present Limits of Scaling.

7.2 Small Size Limits for the MOSFET.

7.2.1 Nano-FET Drive Current I.

7.2.2 Nano-FET Drive Current II.

7.3 Present Status of MOSFET Fabrication and Performance.

7.3.1 Working n- and p- MOSFET Devices with 5 nm Channel Length.

7.4 Alternative to Bulk Silicon: Buried Oxide BOX.

7.5 Alternative to Bulk Silicon: Strain Engineering.

7.6 The Benzene Molecule as a Field Effect Transistor.

References.

8 Devices Based upon Electron Tunneling: Resonant Tunnel Diodes.

8.1 Introduction.

8.2 Physical Basis of Tunneling Devices.

8.2.1 Barrier Penetration and Trapped Particles.

8.2.2 Escape Time from a Finite Well.

8.2.3 Resonant Tunneling Diode.

8.2.4 Time for Tunneling and Device Speed.

8.2.5 Esaki Diode.

8.3 Resonant Tunneling Diodes and Hot Electron Transistors.

8.3.1 Three-Terminal Resonant Tunneling Device.

8.3.2 ‘‘Resonant Interband Tunnel Diode’’: A Relative of The Esaki Diode.

8.4 Superconducting (RSFQ) Logic/Memory Computer Elements.

8.5 Epitaxial MgO-Barrier Tunnel Junctions: Magnetic Field Sensors.

References.

9 Single-Electron Transistors, Molecular and Hybrid Electronics.

9.1 Introduction to Coulomb and Molecular Devices.

9.2 Single-Electron (Coulomb) Transistor SET.

9.2.1 Nanoscopic Source–Drain Channel: Two Tunnel Junctions in Series.

9.2.2 Single-Electron Transistor Model.

9.2.3 A Single-Electron Transistor Based on a Single C₆₀ Molecule.

9.2.4 A Single-Electron Transistor Based on a Carbon Nanotube.

9.2.5 The Radio Frequency Single-Electron Transistor (RFSET): A Proven Research Tool.

9.3 Single Molecules as Active Elements in Electronic Circuits.

9.4 Hybrid Nanoelectronics Combining Si CMOS and Molecular Electronics: CMOL.

9.5 Carbon Nanotube Crossbar Arrays for Ultradense, Ultrafast, Nonvolatile Random Access Memory.

9.6 Carbon Nanotube-Based Electromechanical Switch Arrays for Nonvolatile Random Access Memory.

9.7 Proposed 16-bit Parallel Processing in a Molecular Assembly.

References.

10 Devices Based on Electron Spin and Ferromagnetism for Storage and Logic.

10.1 Hard and Soft Ferromagnets.

10.2 The Origins of Giant Magnetoresistance.

10.2.1 Spin-Dependent Scattering of Electrons.

10.2.2 The GMR Spin Valve, a Nanoscale Magnetoresistance Sensor.

10.2.3 The Tunnel Valve, a Better (TMR) Magnetic Field Sensor.

10.3 Magnetic Random Access Memory.

10.4 Hybrid Ferromagnet–Semiconductor Nonvolatile Hall Effect Gate Devices.

10.5 Spin Injection: The Johnson–Silsbee Effect.

10.5.1 Apparent Spin Injection from a Ferromagnet into a Carbon Nanotube.

10.6 Imaging a Single Electron Spin by a Magnetic Resonance AFM.

10.7 Magnetic Logic Devices: A Majority Universal Logic Gate.

10.8 Magnetic Domain Wall Racetrack Memory.

References.

11 Qubits Versus Binary Bits in a Quantum Computer.

11.1 Introduction.

11.1.1 Binary Bits and Qubits.

11.2 Electron and Nuclear Spins and Their Interaction.

11.3 A Spin-Based Quantum Computer Using STM.

11.4 Double-Well Potential Charge Qubits.

11.4.1 Coherent Bonding and AntiBonding States in Artificial Structure.

11.4.2 Silicon-Based Quantum Computer Qubits.

11.4.3 Experimental Approaches to the Double-Well Charge Qubit.

11.4.4 Coupling of Two-Charge Qubits in a Solid-State (Superconducting) Context.

11.5 Ion Trap on a GaAs Chip, Pointing to a New Qubit.

11.6 Adiabatic Quantum Computation.

11.6.1 An Example of an Optimization Problem.

11.6.2 Demonstration of Adiabatic Quantum Computation.

11.6.3 Flux Qubits as a Scalable Approach to Quantum Computation.

References.

12 Applications of Nanoelectronic Technology to Energy Issues.

12.1 Introduction.

12.1.1 Limitation of Oil Resources.

12.1.2 Alteration of Atmosphere.

12.1.3 Improving Performance of Energy Components via Nanoelectronic Technology.

12.1.4 Topics of Opportunity from Nanoelectronic Perspective.

12.2 Solar Energy and Its Conversion.

12.2.1 Photovoltaic Solar Cells.

12.2.2 Thin Film Solar Cells Versus Crystalline Cells.

12.2.3 CIGS (CuIn_{1_x}Ga_xSe₂) Thin Film Solar Cells.

12.2.4 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells.

12.2.5 Polymer Organic Solar Cells.

12.2.6 Comments on Cells and on Solar Power Versus Wind Power.

12.3 Hydrogen Production (Solar) for Energy Transport.

12.3.1 Economics of Hydrogen at Present.

12.3.2 Hydrogen as Potential Intermediate in US Electricity Distribution.

12.3.3 Efficient Photocatalytic Dissociation of Water into Hydrogen and Oxygen.

12.3.4 C-Doped TiO₂ Nanotube Arrays for Dissociating H₂O by Light.

12.4 Storage and Transport of Hydrogen as a Potential Fuel.

12.5 Surface Adsorption as a Method of Storing Hydrogen in High Density.

References.

13 Future of Nanoelectronic Technology.

13.1 Silicon Devices.

13.1.1 Power Density and Power Usage.

13.1.2 Opportunity for Innovation in Large-Scale Computation.

13.2 Solar Energy Conversion with Printed Solar Cells.

13.2.1 Capital Costs per Unit Area for CIGS Cells.

13.3 Emergence of Nanoimprinting Methods.

13.4 Self-Assembly of Nanostructured Electrodes.

13.5 Emerging Methods in Nanoelectronic Technology.

References.

Exercises.

Abbreviations.

Some Useful Constants.

Index.